Noah Glaser
January 24, 2010
Professor Krupar
History of Technology
Galileo Galilei and His Innovations
Throughout history there have only been a handful of people who have had such a significant role towards the change of society and one’s respective fields of study. Galileo Galilei is one of those people. Galileo’s technological innovations allowed himself to revolutionize the way the earth was seen and more importantly expanded mankind’s knowledge and understanding of space and physics. Due to Galileo Galilei’s huge contributions to so many fields, he is often referred to as the “father of modern science(cite).” In fact, Steven Hawking, the famous theoretical physicist, has stated, “Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was responsible for the birth of modern science (cite). On a similar note, Galileo has also been called the ‘father of modern astronomy,” the “father of physics,” and the “father of science.” With such recognition, it is obvious that Galileo Galilei’s contributions to science have been huge. Afterall, he is the man who is most widely known for inventing the telescope and looking into space. However, Galileo Galilei did much more than that with his life. He also studied physics and revolutionized our very way of thinking.
In 1564, Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Tuscany. His father, Vincenzo Galilei, was a highly successful lute player who also toyed around in the field of physics. Vincenzo Galilei was a man who believed in change and his outlook on his work showed this mindset. In fact, Vincenzo Galileo has been called by some as a “revolutionary musician” because he helped transform traditional church music into what would later evolve into the genre of Italian Opera. So there is no doubt that Vincenzo was a huge inspiration to his song, Galileo and a quote from Vincenzo himself shows the mindset that he possessed and no doubtingly passed on to his son.“It appears to me that those who rely simply on the weight of authority to prove any assertion, without searching out the arguments to support it, act absurdly. I wish to question freely and to answer freely without any sort of adulation. That well becomes any who are sincere in the search for truth” (cite).
With such an inspirational figure as a father it is no wonder that Galileo was able to achieve so much with his life. However, it would take more than just inspiration. At the age of 17 Galileo Galilei was accepted into the University of Pisa where he would follow his father’s wishes and study medicine. Shortly after being accepted Galileo turned his interests to mathematics and was actually tutored by Ricci, a famous designer of fortifications. Galileo would excel at mathematics and by his mid twenties, he wrote a piece on the centers of gravity of shapes. At the young age of twenty-five, Galileo Galilei would be appointed to the prestigious chair of Mathematics in his home-town of Pisa.
For the next several years, Galileo would further establish himself as a recognized mathematician and would work his way up to higher position jobs. His ambition, however, did not stop there. Galileo would continue his studies and begin doing independent studies based upon things Galieo himself would invent. At age of 46, Galieo would develop one of the first functional telescopes which he is now most famous for. The invention of this device opened the doors to a much larger range of studies for Galileo and would help put him in a struggle with the church.
Galileo through his life made enormous contributions to science, and because of these accomplishments he is considered a father to both modern physics and astronomy (Galileo). He was the one that found the evidence needed to prove Copernicus’ theory that the sun was the center of the solar system (Galileo). He also started to study the planets and the sun directly making detailed observations to what was actually out there. He also started to study how objects on the earth behaved, which later Newton continued his work coming up with the laws of motion (Galileo).
Although Galileo did not invent the telescope, he was the first to use it to examine the heavens (Galileo). Using the telescope he was able to see the planets in such a way to make detailed observations, which were later proved by modern science. As stated before, Copernicus was the first to theorize that the sun and the planets did not orbit the earth, but rather the earth and the planets orbited the sun. However, Copernicus did not have hard evidence that this was true. That was until Galileo started to look through the telescope at Venus (Galileo). When Galileo looked at Venus he saw something similar to what was happening to the moon, it was going through phases (Galileo). The moon when it orbited the earth it went through the phases from full to new showing where the source light was coming from. According to the Ptolemaic universe the earth was the center of the solar system, and if that were true the phases of Venus had to be only crescent (Galileo). When Galileo looked at the phases of Venus it more resembled the moon going through all the phases showing that Venus orbited the sun (Galileo).
Galileo made many other discoveries about the solar system other then that the sun was the center of it all. He observed Jupiter and found four bright dots that seemed to follow and orbit Jupiter, which then he realized that they were moons (Galileo). Today those moons are considered the Galilean moons (Galileo). He also studied the sun and saw dark spots on the surface, which today we know as sun spots. Along with finding these spots he saw that the sun rotated on an axis making the spots move along the surface (Galileo). He saw that the planets were not just points of light but circular discs, which was again disproving the Ptolemaic universe (Galileo). While observing the Milky Way Cloud he discovered that it was made up of many stars which were not seen before (Galileo). In looking at Saturn he discovered that it seemed to have ears, but we know now that he saw the rings of Saturn (Galileo). Lastly when he looked at the moon he saw craters and mountains showing that it was not a smooth surface (Galileo).
Even with all these discoveries about the universe, Galileo was not done studying how everything interacted. Through his many experiments he finally was credited with two major theories. These theories were that the force of gravity is constant no matter the size of the object, and the concept of inertia.
Newton’s first law as we know it is the law of inertia. An object in motion stays in motion and an object at rest stays at rest unless a force is acted upon it. While Newton is credited for the law, the concept came from his predecessor Galileo (Galileo). He saw when doing experiments in pushing a block across a table that it stops when he stopped pushing. He then theorized that the block did not move unless he pushed it (Galileo). So he said that objects at rest needed a push to be put into motion and that the force of friction stopped the block after he stopped pushing (Galileo). This was to be the cornerstone of Newton’s first law of motion.
Contrary to common belief there is no evidence that Galileo dropped two items off the Tower of Pisa, however the concept of the falling objects was true. He most likely did smaller experiments to prove his concept (Galileo). There was one flaw in his observation and that was a feather fell slower than most objects. He stated that if there was no air resistance that the feather would drop as fast (Teachers). This concept remained unproven until Apollo 15 astronaut David Scott dropped a hammer and a feather on the surface of the moon, which is a vacuum (Grayzeck). When he dropped them they both fell at the same rate (Grayzeck).
Though Galileo would accomplish many things in his life, he would not receive the recognition that he deserved. In fact, Galielo’s scientific achievements would shove him in the middle of a controversy with the church that would rob him of his freedom for the last several years of his life. In 1642, after Galileo’s publishing of his book, the Dialogues on the Two Chief World Systems, which highlighted his theories on the solar system, Galileo was called to Rome by the Holy Office of Inquisition. In early 1633, Galileo made the trip to Rome where the Holy Office charge him with heresy. Contrary to popular belief, the church was not so much angry with his beliefs. In fact they actually supported his studies to a degree. The church was however, had a contract with Galileo barring him from teaching his findings. The charges of heresy were brought upon him for this very reason as he was charged with teaching Copernican model of the solar system. The doctrine of the Copernican model had been ruled heretical against the church decades before which put his teachings as a threat to the religious establishment
The lead up to Galileo’s trial was filled with a lot of controversy, both in regards of the validity of the charges and in the legality of the procedure. At the time such notions were considered to be heresy and had been for years. So the church did not particularly act without justification. In fact, Galileo himself had also been warned by Cardinal Bellarmine previously so Galileo was not without knowledge of the possible consequences of his teachings. Historians have also contributed his charges to a variety of political factors including; the 30 Years War, Urban VIII, and the Counter Reformation. Whatever the reason, Galileo was charged with heresy for his beliefs and teaching those beliefs.
At Galileo’s final hearing, he was taken to the Santa Maria Church where he was sentenced and declared to be guilty of heresy. As his sentence was delivered he was made to kneel on the ground and recite the following statement, “I have been judged vehemently suspect of heresy, that is, of having held and believed that the sun in the centre of the universe and immoveable, and that the earth is not at the center of same, and that it does move. Wishing however, to remove from the minds of your Eminences and all faithful Christians this vehement suspicion reasonably conceived against me, I abjure with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, I curse and detest the said errors and heresies, and generally all and every error, heresy, and sect contrary to the Holy Catholic Church” (Shea and Artigas 194).
As punishment for his crimes of heresy, Galileo was ordered into house arrest for his remaining years of life. Late in the year of 1633, he started his time in house arrest at his house in Arcetri, Florence. During his time in house arrest, Galileo finished his final piece, the Discourses on the Two New Sciences. This book had no reference to the Copernican model of the solar system and would be published in 1638. Later that year, Galileo would go completely blind. This has often been accredited to his observations of the sun through his telescopes. Galileo would later suffer from an agonizing hernia that would enable him to travel for medical attention. At the time of his death in January 1642, Galileo was very ill from a fever and heart problems, but even with his death his work has yet to be forgotten.
Galileo’s scientific knowledge has had an impact on the world and our way of thinking. He has made inventions, such as the telescope and concave lens. He was the first person to invent science. He “ began certain experiements around 1592.”(cite book) Before he was born,” there was no such thing as science, yet by the time he died science was well on its way to becoming a discipline and its concepts and method a whole philosophical system.”(cite). Without his foundings of science, people would have no way of thinking. Closer to his death, he had gone through problems. He has published a book that supported the Copernicus theory in 1632, called . Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , which is stated in (cite) However, he got into trouble with the Catholic church, because of his belief in the Copernicus system. He was then “called before the Inquisition and this time was found guilty of heresy.”(cite) That means that he had to go to prison, for the sentence of life imprisonment in 1633. His book was “placed on the Index of prohibited works and remained there for two hundred years.”(cite) That means the book was not appropriate at that time and had to return to Florence, “to be under house arrest for the rest of his life”(cite). Gallieo then became heartbroken. He could have continued his life of scientific theory, but Gallieo died of blindness in 1642. Gallieo scientific works and knowledge has and will not be forgotten.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/
http://galileo.rice.edu/bio/narrative_7.html
http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/telescope.html
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/galileo.html
Cites
- “Galileo: the Telescope & the Laws of Dynamics.” Web. 28 Jan 2010.
- “Teachers’ Domain.” Galileo on the Moon. 2010. Web. 28 Jan 2010. <http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/phy03.sci.phys.mfw.galmoon/>.
- Grayzeck, ed. “The Apollo 15 Hammer-Feather Drop.” 12 February 2008. NASA, Web. 28 Jan 2010. <http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_15_feather_drop.html>.
